Sex and age differences in antibody responses to seasonal influenza vaccination are mediated by estrogenic upregulation of NF-κB and TNF signaling in B cells.

Studied

Researchers examined age and sex differences in immune responses to seasonal influenza vaccination.

Who / model

Adults aged 18–49 received seasonal vaccine; adults aged 75 or older received high-dose vaccine. Responses were studied through 28 days. Sample sizes are not stated.

Studied dose & schedule

Dose and schedule have not yet been extracted for this summary.

Found

Young women had stronger antibody responses to H3N2, but not H1N1, than young men; this difference was absent in older adults. In laboratory tests, estradiol increased antibody-producing cells from young women, but not men. An estrogen-receptor blocker inhibited this cellular effect.

Limits

Study limitations were not stated in the abstract. Methodological quality has not been appraised.

Read summary source ↗ · Prepared 9/15/2026 · AI-assisted, source-based summary